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20 April 2015, Volume 29 Issue 2 Previous Issue    Next Issue

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Soil Improvement For a Fly-Ash Landfill Site MA Jun,YANG Jibao 2015, 29 (2):  1-4.  Abstract ( 3369 )   Save  This paper presents the geotechnical investigation results of a landfill site for the fly-ash. The site conditions such as, natural environment, hydrological conditions and physical and mechanical properties of the subsurface soils are induced in the paper. Several ground improvement methods are considered by comparing their advantages and disadvantages and the optimum ground improvement method is selected. The deep mixes by using both wet slurry and dry cement powder methods. The construction results indicate that the soil improvement method selected was successful. Related Articles | Metrics

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Numerical Analysis of a Slurry Wall for the Deep Excavation DU Zhenxi，WU Tao，LI Huifeng，XU Guangbing 2015, 29 (2):  5-7.  Abstract ( 1596 )   Save As a popular supporting system for the deep excavation, the slurry wall is widely used in the deep excavation applications. The numerical analysis of a slurry wall is numerical analyzed by using Lizheng Software. The numerical results are compared with the monitored results. These analysis results can be used in the further understanding of the supporting mechanism of the slurry wall in the deep excavations. Related Articles | Metrics

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Failure Investigation of Hand Dug Caissons for Buildings with Basements WU Qun1，KONG Hailong2 2015, 29 (2):  8-9.  Abstract ( 1325 )   Save The arrangements of deep foundations such as piles and caissons for the buildings with basements should consider the influence of the groundwater. When the high groundwater is encountered, mitigation methods should consider the site specific conditions and costs. When the hand dug caisson is selected and the installation is started after the completion of the deep excavation, to prevent the rapid raise of the groundwater, the number of the dewatering point wells, backup power sources can be utilized. Related Articles | Metrics

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Sudden Mud Rush in a Metro Tunnel Undercross Municipal Streets Construction XU Xiqiang 2015, 29 (2):  10-12.  Abstract ( 1353 )   Save Tunnels in the urban soft soil area are frequently undercrossing the municipal streets. This paper provides a case history of emergency response of the sudden mush rush in during the tunnel excavation underneath a street. The comprehensive mitigation measures were proposed based on the subsurface geotechnical and hydrological conditions. The emergency response and the mitigation method effectively reduced the impact of the tunnel excavation on the operation of the municipal streets. Related Articles | Metrics

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Urban City Karst Terrain Evaluation and Mitigation -- A Case Study at Tangshan Times Square ZHU Sainan1，JING Zhihui2 2015, 29 (2):  13-16.  Abstract ( 1383 )   Save The City of Tangshan is a typical urban city underlain by the karst terrain and the Tangshan Times Square is at the center of the city. The development of the karst rock has a significant impact on the proposed construction near this area. The development of the karst bedrock, site stability and its evaluation, karst rock stability evaluation as well as the karst rock mitigation aspects are presented based on the site investigation data. Among these aspects, the mitigation of the karst rock, horizontal and vertical grouting limits, grouting materials and their QA/QC procedures have been verified by the applications in the actual construction projects. Related Articles | Metrics

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Geological Investigation and Stability Analysis of Rock Slopes JIA Dingguo 2015, 29 (2):  17-20.  Abstract ( 1343 )   Save Geological investigations on a rock slope near Boquan Iron Mine are presented in this paper. The investigations are performed on the rock slopes at the west side of the Pulverization Plant, south side of the Preliminary Broken Plant and Slopes from the Sieving Plant to the east side of the Preliminary Broken Plant. The stability of these slopes is evaluated and analyzed. The rock and soil parameters are determined from the laboratory testing on the samples from the rock slopes and the tailing mine.  The stability evaluation is also examined by using the FLAC3D finite element method. The mitigation methods are proposed for the potential problematic cutting slopes and rock falling areas. Related Articles | Metrics

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Hazard Evaluation of Live Trafficked Highway Slopes-Case History Study of a Highway K36+220 to K36+485, Zhejiang Province FU Xianwei 2015, 29 (2):  21-24.  Abstract ( 1273 )   Save Significant amount of safety hazards are accumulated on the highway slopes after years of opening to the traffic and these hazards impose a potential threat to the safety of highway operation. The paper presents the case study of the instability concerns of the live trafficked highway segment between K36+220 and K36+480 in Zhejiang Province. The regional factors, such as, topography, subsurface lithology, tectonic structures, seismic conditions, meteorology and hydrology conditions, are investigated. The characteristics of the highway slopes and their associated hazards are presented. Both qualitative and quantitative evaluations of these highway slopes are performed and mitigation recommendations are proposed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Mitigation of a Cut Slope Failure near the Railway Alignment CHEN Xiaoli 2015, 29 (2):  25-28.  Abstract ( 1587 )   Save  This paper provides the characteristics of the landslide induced excessive deformation of a railway alignment in Hunan Province. Under the adverse conditions such as intensive precipitation and poor drainage, the infiltration of the groundwater into the thick high montmorillonite content residual clayey soil triggered the deepseated slide. The mitigation design considered the landslide character, factors that trigger the slide and the locally available construction techniques. A gravity retaining structure combined with drainage and water diverting measures was used for the landslide treatment. The result of the construction indicates that the mitigation was successful. Related Articles | Metrics

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Gravity Retaining Wall with PreStressed Ground Anchors Stabilizing a River Slope XIAO Rongjun 2015, 29 (2):  29-32.  Abstract ( 1440 )   Save The existing retaining wall for the river bank slope along the north side of the East Jiangpu Road in Xijiao Township, Foshan City is a castinplace reinforced concrete wall. The design of the new retaining wall considers the characteristics of the existing wall, subsurface geotechnical and hydrological conditions, the adjacent environments and the previous successful experience in the design and construction of the prestressed ground anchors in the area. During the construction, the horizontal movements of soils behind the retaining wall were monitored and the results verified feasibility of the design method. Related Articles | Metrics

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Stability Analysis and Mitigation of a High Cut Slope in Badong County, Three Gorges Reservoir Area SHEN Jian, XIAO Shirong, HU Zhiqiang,YU Wenjing 2015, 29 (2):  33-36.  Abstract ( 1376 )   Save A number of high cut slopes are formed due to the construction of relocation community of the immigrants from the pool area of Three-Gorges Reservoir. Some of these high cut slopes might have a potential safety hazard to the life and properties of the residents. The safety of these slopes is of an integral part of the geological hazard preventions and is also a critical portion of the prolonged safety issue for the relocation communities. This paper presents a case history of the evaluation of a high cut slope. Factors that affecting the stability of the slope are discussed and the safety of the slope are evaluated by the limit equilibrium method and geological engineering analog method. The mitigation of measure utilizes a comprehensive method: the combination of flatten slope with shotcrete on the wire meshes; mortar stacked masonry retaining wall; cut-off ditch at the crest of the slope. Related Articles | Metrics

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Slope Stability Treatment for a Memorial Museum in Pingyang County HE Tao1，DENG Weiping2，LI Xiangbin3 2015, 29 (2):  37-40.  Abstract ( 1496 )   Save The vegetation of the side slopes of a memorial museum in Pingyang County was destroyed and topsoil was eroded due to the adjacent highway and building constructions. The landslide is easily triggered by the adverse factors such as precipitations. The factors of safety of these slopes are analyzed by the Spencer Method and the results are compared with the code requirement. A comprehensive slope stability method: concrete gravity wall + sliding resist caisson + measures of collecting and diverting surface runoffs are proposed based on the site conditions and local landslide treatment experience.  Related Articles | Metrics

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Dewatering for a Deep Excavation WANG Jiang1, YANG Zhi2 2015, 29 (2):  41-44.  Abstract ( 1390 )   Save This paper presents a case history of a deep excavation supporting and dewatering design. The alternates of the supporting systems are compared and selected based on the site engineering geological and hydrological conditions. The site average permeability coefficient and radius of the dewatering cone are determined through the experience in similar site conditions. The dewatering design considered measures for both the upper perched groundwater and the lower artesian groundwater. The water collecting ditches are provided for the upper perched water. The dewatering requirements for the lower artesian water are carefully examined. The results indicate that the design point well spacing and the number of pinot wells are appropriate. The dewatering system is adequate for the deep excavation construction.  Related Articles | Metrics

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Slope Stability Mitigation Design for a Residential Community in Lishui City Zhejiang Province ZHENG Jindong，YANG Zeping 2015, 29 (2):  45-48.  Abstract ( 1262 )   Save This paper presents a case history of the slope stability mitigation design for a residential community in Zhejiang Province. The mitigation procedure is proposed based on the site subsurface conditions, and the factors that are to be considered in a typical slope stability related project. The evaluations are focused on the stability of the supporting structures and the analysis cases consider the most unfavorable conditions with standard loading conditions. The analyses are performed with Lizheng Geotechnical Engineering Version 5.6. The results indicate that a stable condition has been reached in each of the segment. Further, the design aspects of the ground anchor and the castinplace reinforced concrete retaining wall, which they both meet the code requirement and are cost effective, are presented in the paper. Related Articles | Metrics

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Stability Mitigation Project of a Slope Failure in a Garment Factory in Qingtian County LI Xiangbin1,2, DENG Weiping2, LI Guoqing2,HE Tao1 2015, 29 (2):  49-52.  Abstract ( 1470 )   Save The manual excavation and steepen of a slope at the west side of a garment factory in Qingtian County, Zhejiang Province, has changed the topography of the original ground and posed a stability threat to the safety of the personnel life and the property. This slope was analyzed by the limit equilibrium method. Based on the stability evaluation results, site specific geological settings, code requirements as well as the local slope mitigation experience, a comprehensive slope stability mitigation method was proposed: flatten the slope + masonry stone gravity retaining wall + mortared protective stone fa?ade + full length grouted ground anchors + Type 2 GPS active protective net + measures that collecting and diverting surface runoff waters.  Related Articles | Metrics

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Analysis of Rock Fragmentation under High Pressure Water Jetting BAO Shengcai 2015, 29 (2):  53-56.  Abstract ( 1543 )   Save High efficiency rock fragmentation is a fundamental technique in the drilling engineering. This technique is critical in the area of improving the rock fragmentation ratio, reducing the drilling time in the rock mass as well as reducing the drilling cost. This paper summarized the basic theories of rock fragmentation by using the steady high pressure water jetting technique. The mechanism and process of rock breaking are also analyzed. The water jetting parameters on the rock (using sandstone as a target) breaking are discussed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Engineering Geological Characteristics of Soft Rock for the Third Yangtze River Bridge in Nangjing GUO Zhengfa，WU Jianchun 2015, 29 (2):  57-59.  Abstract ( 1154 )   Save The soft rock often has special engineering characteristics, such as, expansive, softening, slaking and un-uniform. This paper presents the geological investigation results of the bedrock for the Nanjing Third Yangtze River Bridge. The physical and mechanical properties of the soft rock and its potential geotechnical hazards are also introduced in the paper. Related Articles | Metrics

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Discussions on the Bearing Capacity of Guizhou Soft Bedrock ZHAO Yejiang 1,2 2015, 29 (2):  60-63.  Abstract ( 1117 )   Save Factors that affecting the bearing capacity of foundations on the soft bedrock are analyzed in this paper and several methods of determining the bearing capacity of the soft rock are also presented in this paper. A case history of a building construction is presented to demonstrate the advantages and disadvantages of these bearing capacity estimation methods. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Discussion about Improve the Heave Stability Checking of Foundation Excavation SUN Yafei 2015, 29 (2):  64-66.  Abstract ( 1489 )   Save This paper presents the comparative results calculated from the bottom heave calculations in the New National Building Design Specifications, Tianjin City Design Specifications and the Shanghai City Design Specifications. Factors that both considered in three different codes are analyzed and the bottom heave prevention measures are also presented. In a deep excavation site, both the width and the depth of the soil that requires to be improved are presented in accordance with the Prandtl formula. Related Articles | Metrics

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Large Span Underground Metro Station Construction Induced Ground Subsidence LIU Tao1，XU Congjie1,ZHANG Jin2 2015, 29 (2):  67-71.  Abstract ( 1595 )   Save A regression analysis was performed on the field monitored data for the ground subsidence induced by the construction of a metro station in No. 3 Line in Qingdao City. The bedrock conditions of the Qingdao City consist of predominantly hard rock, such as, granite. The Double Lateral Walls Heading Excavation Method is usually used in the excavation of the large span metro station. The construction monitoring results indicate that the maximum ground subsidence range is from 57.68 to 74.63 mm. The width of the cracks induced by the ground subsidence is between 0.544 and 0.73 mm. The construction induced ground loss ratio is between 5.9 and 7.23%. These results can be used in the evaluation of the impact of the construction induced ground subsidence and its environmental effect (on the adjacent buildings and the underground utilities). The total ground subsidence control can be achieved throughout the controlling of the incremental subsidence in each construction step by using the weighted displacement distribution principle in the underground excavation project. Related Articles | Metrics

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Subway Station Unit Model Analytical Method WANG Limei1，ZHAO Hongqiang2 2015, 29 (2):  72-74.  Abstract ( 1099 )   Save The unit model is the main analytical model in the design of the subway stations. This paper discusses both the unit model and the global model in the subway design through the appropriate defining the boundary conditions in both model. The analytical results indicate that the differences between two models are within 5% but the global model is closer to the real conditions. It is therefore suggested that the global model be used in the subway station design. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Application Column Supported Embankment in the Expressway Widening GUO Tao1，YI Xin1，JI Xiaoxiang2 2015, 29 (2):  75-78.  Abstract ( 1501 )   Save The potential differential settlement between the proposed and the existing embankment is an important issued that needs to be resolved in the highway widening projects. Column supported embankment receives more and more wide application in effectively minimize the differential settlement between the proposed and the existing embankments.  This paper introduces the components of the column supported embankments: reinforced soil; column/pile; and load transfer mat. The interactions mechanism among the reinforced soils, columns/piles and load transfer mat are discussed and the principles as well as the column supported embankment for the highway widening are proposed. As a case history, the column supported embankment is used in the soft soil improvement in Guangsan Expressway Project. The potential differential settlement between the existing and the proposed embankments is successfully minimized. Related Articles | Metrics

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Numerical Analysis Using Particle Flow Code on the Progressive Failure of Soil Slopes WU Jianliang, LU Hongbo and ZHOU Guolin 2015, 29 (2):  79-82.  Abstract ( 1248 )   Save The conventional limit equilibrium and finite element analysis with strength reduction methods have difficulties in simulating the progressive failure of the materials in the slope stability analysis. This disadvantage has impeded the research developments in this area. A 10 meters high soil slope with grain size of 0.1 meters was numerically analyzed by the Particle Flow Code software. At its initial stage, the soil slope is stable. Three failure modes have been imposed on the existing soil slope: reduction of the cohesion; reduction of the coefficient of friction among particles and imposing a 0.1 g horizontal seismic force on the existing soil slope. 30 particle groups with a vertical spacing of 1 meter have been monitored for the progressive failure of each 20,000 time step. The progressive failure of a total of 200,000 time steps has been studied. The results indicate that, for the reduction of the cohesion, the initial local failure is close to the rigid body assumption. The failure mode belongs to the progressive failure. The deformations of the sliding body are relatively small and the sliding body movement is not far. The final slip surface is close to an arc. A global failure mode can be found in the reduction of coefficient friction among the particles. The plastic deformations are found in the sliding body and therefore, large deformations are observed in the sliding body. A long distance of movement in the sliding body can be found. Under the seismic condition, the global instability and a broken sliding body can be found. The sliding impact zone and sliding body movement are the largest among three failure modes. The following failure ranking can be obtained from the strongest to the weakest global failure: seismic condition, reduction of internal friction and the reduction of cohesion. The slope failure is a progressive process of reduction of the potential energy and re-stabilization of the sliding body as well as the accumulation of the sliding materials. Related Articles | Metrics

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Failure Modes and Stability Evaluations of High Syncline Rock Slopes ZHU Chao1，MA Shiju2 2015, 29 (2):  83-86.  Abstract ( 1394 )   Save The failure mode of a high syncline rock slope in an expressway construction site in Southwest China was determined to be the combined mode of tension failure at the crest and the slidingshear along the structural plane throughout the analyses. The strength parameters along the main sliding plane are determined from the back analysis of this syncline slope. Both the limit equilibrium and finite element method with strength reduction methods are performed on a typical cross section of this high rock slope. The stability of the typical section under the natural, high precipitation and seismic conditions are analyzed. The factory of safety under the natural condition is 1.12.   Related Articles | Metrics

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Seismic Earth Pressures behind a Clay-Filled Retaining Wall and Its Differential Thin Layer Method XU Limin, SUN Yong，CHEN Yanwei 2015, 29 (2):  86-91.  Abstract ( 1120 )   Save  The earth pressures behind a retaining wall are still studied by the geotechnical researchers and practitioners. This paper presents the research results of the earth pressures under the seismic conditions. The results are compared with the Rankine, and Coulomb earth pressure theories and it is found to be consistent. However, the existing earth pressure formulas are for the uniform and isotropic single soil layer, this paper presents the results for estimating the earth pressures for the multilayer backfill soils with different properties. The results indicate that the combined force of active earth pressures is higher than those of the Rankine and Coulomb earth pressures and the results are consistent with several previous results. Related Articles | Metrics

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Dynamic Shear Modulus and Damping Ratios of Zhoushan Marine Soils under Small Strains SHI Fazhan1, LIU Fenghua1，HOU Hongwei2， GAO Shihu3 2015, 29 (2):  92-97.  Abstract ( 1335 )   Save This paper presents the research results of undisturbed marine soft soil samples from Zhoushan areas. The index properties of the marine soils from the sampling areas are reviewed. The dynamic properties of these marine soil samples retrieved from different depths are tested by the resonant column method under various confining pressures. The resultant shear modulus and damping ratios with relation to the various magnitudes of dynamic shear strains (1x10-6 ~1x10-2) are obtained. The results indicate that, within the variation range of dynamic shear strains between 1x10-6 and 1x10-2, the sampling depth has minimal influence on the dynamic shear modulus and dynamic damping ratio; with the increase of dynamic shear strain, the dynamic shear modulus decreases and the damping ratio increases; the confining pressure has an obvious effect on both the ratio of dynamic shear modulus G/Gmax and the damping ratio D/Dmax, that is, the large the confining pressure is, the higher value of G/Gmax and the smaller of D/Dmax. The normalized dynamic shear modulus ratio and the damping ratio with related to the dynamic shear strain are obtained based on the theoretical analysis with the modified HardinDrevich model. These values are compared with the code recommended values as well as the values recommended by Yuan. These test results provide a better understanding of the dynamic properties of the Zhoushan marine soils. Related Articles | Metrics

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Numerical Analysis of the Liquefaction of Soils Surrounding the PHC Pipe Piles During the Installation JIANG Hao，CHEN Weibing 2015, 29 (2):  97-99.  Abstract ( 1471 )   Save The installation of the High Strength Concrete (PHC) pipe piles has a significant impact on the physical and mechanical properties of the surrounding soils. The installation of the PHC pipe pile is numerically simulated based on an electricity power plant project in Yellow River Alluvial Delta of Shandong Province. The dynamic strain model in the surrounding soil under the horizontal excitations is established and the development of the liquefaction during the pile installation is presented. Related Articles | Metrics

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Corrosion Evaluation of the Groundwater and Soils in Tianjin Area LI Fengxian, WANG Hua，WANG Yongjian 2015, 29 (2):  100-104.  Abstract ( 1367 )   Save This paper presents the corrosion evaluation results on the groundwater and soil samples from Tianjin area. The test items include the water quality analyses and soluble salt in the soils, contents of different ions in the water and soils as well as the corrosion potentials to the construction materials. The test results indicate that, in the center city areas, the ion contents in the artesian groundwater are generally higher than those of in the nonartesian groundwater; the ion contents in the first artesian groundwater are generally lower than those of in the second artesian groundwater. For the ion contents in the non-artesian groundwater, samples from the Binhai New District near the sea shore have higher contents than those from the center city area. However, the ion contents from the artesian groundwater underneath the Binhai New District have no significant different than those samples from the artesian water underneath the center city. This paper also presents the category of regional environments and techniques to determine the alternates of dry and wet conditions.  Related Articles | Metrics

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Collapse Risk Evaluation of Mountain Tunnel Through Broken Rock Mass LIN Zhiping1,2 2015, 29 (2):  105-108.  Abstract ( 1420 )   Save Tunnel constructions in the mountain terrain frequently have geohazards, such as, collapse, sudden rush of mud and water, due to their complicated geological and topographical conditions. To minimize these geohazards, it is necessary to monitor the construction to predict the potential risks. Evaluating the specific hazard and its potential influence on the construction still has engineering importance. The collapse potential of Zengban Tunnel in the broken rock mass is evaluated by the comprehensive fuzzy approach method. This paper illustrates the details of the application of this method and the quantitative approach of the potential risk.  Related Articles | Metrics

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Dynamic Triaxial Tests on Completely Weathered Quartz Monzonite Soil Samples with Minimal Confining Pressures WANG Changfa 2015, 29 (2):  109-112.  Abstract ( 1213 )   Save The completely weathered quartz monzonite soils are planned to be used as the backfill material for the railway subgrade in Beijing to Shanghai High Speed Rail project in order to reduce the construction cost. The stress-strain relationship with the number of loading cycles; the relationship between the rebound modulus and the loading cycles; the relationship between the moisture content and the failure strain are examined with the dynamic triaxial tests with minimal confining pressure to simulate the shallow embedment of these materials underneath the rail tracks. The results indicate that the higher moisture content will have a smaller failure strain. In the practical engineering application, the control of the moisture and modify the physical properties of the backfill material can result in a satisfactory engineering performance as well as cost effectiveness.  Related Articles | Metrics

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Correlations Between the SPT N Value and Compression Modulus for Alluvial Soils in Yellow River Delta, Shandong Province GAO Peng1,LV Yinghui2 2015, 29 (2):  113-116.  Abstract ( 1666 )   Save The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a conventional insitu geotechnical investigation method and the general relationship between the SPT N value and the compression modulus Es is available. The alluvial soils from the Yellow River Delta have the similar engineering properties due to their sedimentary environment. It is necessary to examine the relationship between the SPT N value and the compression modulus based on the regression analysis on the clayey, sandy and silty soils from the Yellow River Delta in Shandong Province. The results indicate that, better relationships exist in the clayey and sandy soils. But for the silty soils, due to disturbance on the samples, good relationship could not be obtained. Therefore, it is suggested that the existing general correlations between the SPT N values and the compression modulus for silty soils should be used without correction. Related Articles | Metrics

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Application of the Internet of Things in Tunnel Deformation Monitoring ZHOU Yujuan1，KE Wenhui2 2015, 29 (2):  117-120.  Abstract ( 1648 )   Save This paper presents the content and key aspects of the Internet of Things (IOT) concept. The applications of IOT in the tunnel deformation both in China and abroad have also been reviewed. The challenges and the prospects of this technology in the tunnel construction are also introduced.  Related Articles | Metrics

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Real Time Online Monitoring of Highway Slopes Using Fiber Grating Sensing Technology WU Xiaoqing1,LU Feiyong2,DU Zichao3 2015, 29 (2):  121-124.  Abstract ( 1815 )   Save The application of the fiber grating sensing technology in monitoring the highway slopes has a rapid development in recent years. This paper presents the real time online monitoring results of a highway slope safety monitoring in Xiangshan County, Ningbo. A fiber Bragg grating sensing device is developed based on the mechanism of slope inclinometer. The local strength reduction method was used in the finite element analysis for the stability of the monitored slope and the displacement field was established. The real time online monitoring network system is also developed and the stability forecast can be implemented.   Related Articles | Metrics

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Pull-out Tests of Bamboo Bolts Supporting an Ancient Cultural Relic Site under Wet Conditions SIMA Gaofei, CHAI Xinjun，LI Xinjie 2015, 29 (2):  125-127.  Abstract ( 1110 )   Save The protection of the ancient culture relics that are exposed to the wet conditions is a challenge topic. The application of timber bolts as the protective element for the ancient culture relics in the arid northwest China has been reported but it is rarely found the report of using bamboo bolts as the protective elements under the wet conditions. This paper presents the feasibility of using the bamboo bolts for the supporting of wet ancient culture relic walls that have collapsing potentials. The pull-out tests on the bamboo bolts indicate that the anchor resistance increases with the length of the bolt. The anchor resistance increases when the soil consistency changes from stiff to hard.   Related Articles | Metrics

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Detection and Sealing off Horizontal Cracks in Manually Dug Caissons HU Rujun，LI Qiang，WU Hao 2015, 29 (2):  128-130.  Abstract ( 1339 )   Save This paper presents a case history of mitigating the horizontal cracks in the manually dug caissons. The horizontal cracks are detected by the low strain integrity tests and concrete coring methods. High pressure grouting was used to seal off these defects. The construction techniques of minimizing the horizontal cracks in the manually dug caissons are also proposed. Related Articles | Metrics